Are labour disputes here to stay?

Workers across Europe are increasingly dissatisfied with the increased cost of living which is often not matched by their payslips. 2023 was marked by several significant labour disputes across Europe, even in countries with a low record of disputes. This is especially the case for transport, education, health and social care, and manufacturing workers.

Unclear trends 

While data on industrial action are scarce and fragmented, the available data indicate that in the period before the COVID-19 pandemic there was a general decrease in industrial action across EU Member States, disrupted by a few intermittent spikes. Some increase in industrial action was reported during the pandemic, especially in the sectors most affected. Due to the lack of comparable data for 2023, a precise trend in industrial action cannot be estimated. 

Nevertheless, in some countries, such as Austria and Germany, the evidence shows that collective bargaining rounds were more conflictual in 2023 than in previous years. In France, the number of individual days not worked due to strikes increased by 71 per cent compared with the previous year. In the Netherlands, the number of strikes in 2023 was the highest in 50 years. 

In Czechia, Finland, Italy, Luxembourg, Norway, Portugal and Sweden, qualitative assessment by Eurofound’s national correspondents also suggests more labour disputes. In Norway, the first strike since the World War II was recorded in the private sector. However, in other countries for which national data are available, such as Spain,the intensity of strikes and industrial action was lower.

Wages most common strike trigger

Somewhat predictably, given the ongoing issue of inflation, the most common subject of the reported labour disputes of national significance was wages, specifically wage failing to meet the higher cost of living due to inflation and higher prices. All EU Member States, except Denmark, saw wage-related industrial action. Conflicts often arose when wage increases were not sufficient to keep up with inflation, with demands in some countries that the costs of inflation should be equally shared among employers and workers. This was notably the case in Spain.

In Italy, pressures around inflation culminated in a national general strike involving employees of all sectors, including managerial staff in November 2023. In the Netherlands, the staff of the largest trade union, the Federation of Dutch Trade Unions (FNV), went on strike for the first time in the union’s existence in its current form (since 2013), demanding automatic price compensation in the new collective labour agreement to cope with inflation. In Slovakia, workers in the retail bank UniCredit Bank secured an 8 per cent wage increase after strike action.

The public sector in several Member States also experienced industrial action, with turbulent disputes among workers in healthcare in 11 countries, education in 9 countries and public administration, including the police, army and judicial services in 11 countries. Low wages compounded by high inflation and underinvestment in the sectors were the common cause.

Working conditions were the second most common subject of labour disputes. This category includes, for instance, demands to reduce class size in the education sector (Lithuania and Hungary), opposition to franchising that might undermine working conditions in the retail sector (Belgium)and cleaning services (Slovenia), and protests against rising work pressure due to low staffing in the aviation industry (Belgium) and fire protection services (Ireland). Several protests addressed pension reforms (France and Romania) and changes to legal regulations (such as the right to strike in Finland).

Other issues that triggered disputes include restrictions on industrial action and the rights of workers (Greece, Finland, France, Hungary), staff shortages (Belgium Ireland, Portugal), and change in the workplace (such as restructuring in Malta and Slovakia). Platform delivery workers launched actions in Poland against the food-delivery platform Pyszne.pl and in Slovenia against the food-and-product-delivery platforms Wolt and Glovo.

Large-scale and lengthy actions

The industrial action in several Member States was large scale in terms of the number of participants or duration. A series of strikes against pension reform in well-unionised sectors in France encompassed the public sector, oil refineries, waste collection, public transport and education. According to various estimates, the number of demonstrators on the streets reached a record high, with between 1.3 to 3.5 million people protesting at times. 

Cyprus experienced the first national general work stoppage in its history, organised by a coalition of several trade unions, after the negotiations on the Cost-of-Living Allowance agreement reached an impasse. 

Workers in Czechia, dissatisfied with the government’s economic policy, united under the umbrella of the Czech-Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions (ČMKOS), the largest trade union confederation in Czechia, and organised ‘A day of protests for a better future’ which ended up being the largest trade union demonstration since 2013. 

In Finland, several strikes that started at the end of 2023 under the banner SeriousGrounds have continued in 2024 and are among the largest political strikes in the country’s history. They have disrupted road, railway and underground transport, closed day-care centres and harbours, and brought a large part of Finnish industry to a standstill.

In Croatia, an accumulation of issues in the judicial system led to the longest strike ever (two months duration) organised by court officials and state employees demanding a substantial wage increase. In Hungary, despite legislative changes in 2022 restricting the right to strike of certain occupations under rules requiring ‘adequate or minimum services’ to be maintained, a protest started in 2022 by teachers demanding better work conditions and higher wages continued in 2023 and into 2024.

Unusual suspects

It should be noted that labour disputes occurred even in countries with a historical low incidence of industrial action (due to national social partnership systems that provide consensual ways of reconciling interests) such as Austria, Ireland and Luxembourg. 

In Austria, a protest week demanding capped prices for food, energy and housing took place in May, followed by a large demonstration organised by the Austrian Trade Union Confederation (ÖGB) in September under the slogan ‘Down with prices, up with wages’. 

In Luxembourg, a country that rarely experiences industrial action, the two strikes in education, health and social care, and in transport (air, road and railways) in 2023 had a national impact, prompting calls for the government to intervene as a mediator in one of them. 

In Ireland, the legacy of industrial peace in the country normally ensures low levels of industrial action; however, two notable strikes took place in 2023, both connected to insufficient public funding and low pay of workers. 

Mixed achievements

The demands related to the most disputed topic of 2023 – wage increases – have been addressed in most countries by means of inflation-compensation premiums, one-off payments, increases to the lowest salary scales or general wage increases. 

The scale of wage increases varied from 5.5% (in the air freight company Cargolux in Luxembourg) to 25% (in the education sector in Romania). In some cases where the social partners were able to work towards a common goal during the collective bargaining rounds, wage settlements reached record highs. However, no clear achievements on wage increases were reported for Belgium, Greece, Finland, France, Hungary Poland, Portugal and Slovenia.

Not all labour disputes were solved by the end of 2023. The protest by teachers in Hungary yielded no results; instead, the government further restricted teachers’ rights to strike. A conflict in Estonia’s public sector from 2023 continued into early 2024 when an indefinite strike was announced.

Sympathy strikes in 2023 show that the social partners in Norway and Sweden – countries with a long-standing tradition of cooperation between the social partners – were not able to secure a collective bargaining agreement for the foreign workers and/or employers active in their countries. 

In several countries, despite their efforts, the social partners could not agree on a satisfying outcome for both parties, and additional intervention was required. 

An uncertain future

Data pertaining to industrial action is often fragmented and caution should be exercised before making conclusive predictions of the future. What is certain is that labour disputes and industrial actions are here to stay. Unresolved workers’ discontent can be politicised and used to exacerbate existing tensions. Continuous monitoring of labour disputes and industrial relations across Europe is key to mitigate this risk.